The gigantic thermal machine. So how does this main forcing of the Sun function ? External Forcing of the climate: variations in the orbital parameters of the Earth (Milankovitch’s theory)

How can human activities modify the global climate? How much change in the greenhouse effect is due to human activities? How do human activities change the albedo? How does the temperature of the

What is the Holocene? What caused this Climate Optimum during the Holocene? How do we know that the African Humid Period occurred during the Holocene Climate Optimum? Were there been other warm

At hemispheric scale, the surface temperature is strongly influenced by the 28 variations of the natural (solar and volcanic) and anthropogenic (land-use, sulphate aerosols, greenhouse gas

What is climate variability? An example of weather variation. The butterfly effect. Sensitivity to initial conditions in the chaos theory. Why does the global temperature of the Earth vary? What

Data show that climate has always changed in the past, sometimes with a larger amplitude than what we experimented for two decades. But the main signatures of the anthopogenic forcing are the speed of

Climate models and experiments. Example 1: The Middle Holocene. Example 2: The Last Glacial Maximum. Example 3: Sudden events. Conclusion…

Why use numerical models of the atmosphere? How does a GCM work? How to represent phenomena occurring below the grid size? Can we simulate all the mechanisms perfectly? What are the consequences

The relatively simple question posed by this title turns out to be complicated in its implementation, for a number of reasons: First, ecosystems have changed in response to changing climate throughout

Historically, the study of mountain hydrology and the water cycle has been largely observational, with meteorological forcing and hydrological variables extrapolated from a few infrequent manual

The previous interglacial (Marine isotope stage 5e, peaking at 125 kyr BP) is usually assumed to be a good analogue for our present-day climate. Moreover, as our present interglacial, the Holocene, is

Projections of future climate change rely on global climate models. Such models simulate the dynamics and physics of the coupled atmosphere-ocean system and move towards models of the full Earth